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Herdanza non mendeliana Índice Tipos | Notas | Véxase tamén | Menú de navegación"Chapter 3. Gene Product Interaction and Nonmendelian""Mechanisms of non-Mendelian inheritance in genetic disease"1535872910.1093/hmg/ddh254"A case of "maternal" inheritance in Neurospora crassa"10635831658912210.1073/pnas.38.5.4421657216310.1038/nature045461083954610.1038/35013100"Gene conversion: mechanisms, evolution and human disease"27798671784663610.1038/nrg2193

Xenética


leis de Mendelxenecromosomasnúcleo celularherdanza mendelianaxenotiposfenotiposeucariotachícharoMendelligadosWilliam BatesonReginald Punnetthomólogorecombinaciónherdanza extranuclearCarl CorrenscitoplasmaóvuloRuth SagerADN presente nos cloroplastosMaryHershel Mitchellmitocondriasorgánuloendosimbióticamitocondriascloroplastosorgánuloscélula hóspedexenoma mitocondrialorgánulosespermatozoidesfenotipoenfermidades mitocondriaismúsculosolloimpronta xenéticaepixeneticamentefactor de crecemento similar á insulina 2proteínaaleloIgf2metilaciónlociexpresión xénicaconversión xénicarecombinación xenéticatrastornos de repetición de trinucleótidosrepeticións en tándemmicrosatélitesnucleótidossíndrome X fráxilenfermidade de Huntington












Herdanza non mendeliana




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Carl Correns.


Herdanza non mendeliana é un termo xeral que fai referencia a calquera patrón de herdanza xenética no cal os caracteres non segregan de acordo coas leis de Mendel. As leis de Mendel describen a herdanza de caracteres que están determinados por un só xene situado nos cromosomas do núcleo celular. Na herdanza mendeliana, cada proxenitor contribúe cun alelo para ese carácter. Se coñecemos os xenotipos de ambos os proxenitores nun cruzamento xenético, as leis de Mendel poden utilizarse para determinar a distribución de fenotipos esperados na descendencia. Porén, hai varias situacións nas cales as proporcións fenotípicas observadas non se corresponden cos valores preditos.


A expresión "herdanza non mendeliana" normalmente só se utiliza para describir as excepcións que ocorren na reprodución eucariota.[1]


A herdanza non mendeliana xoga un papel en varias doenzas.[2]




Índice





  • 1 Tipos

    • 1.1 Ligamento xenético


    • 1.2 Herdanza extranuclear


    • 1.3 Impronta xenética


    • 1.4 Conversión xénica


    • 1.5 Trastornos por repetición de trinucleótidos



  • 2 Notas


  • 3 Véxase tamén

    • 3.1 Outros artigos





Tipos |



Ligamento xenético |



Artigo principal: Ligamento xenético.

A lei de Mendel da distribución independente di que se estudamos dous xenes estes vanse distribuír na descendencia con total independencia un do outro. Esta lei só se cumpre se os xenes están situados en distintos cromosomas (como ocorría nos sete caracteres do chícharo estudados por Mendel), pero se os xenes están no mesmo cromosoma non se cumpre debido ao fenómeno do ligamento, polo que non se dará a proporción 9:3:3:1 mendeliana. Os xenes que se encontran no mesmo cromosoma tenden a herdarse xuntos e dise que están ligados. O fenómeno foi descuberto por William Bateson e Reginald Punnett a principios do século XX.


Cando hai segregación mendeliana para os xenes A e B (situados en distintos cromosomas) un individuo que sexa AaBb producirá gametos AB, Ab, aB e ab. Pero se nese individuo AaBb eses dous xenes están ligados (situados no mesmo cromosoma) e nun dos cromosomas están, por exemplo, os alelos A e B e no outro (o homólogo) os a e b, o individuo normalmente só producirá gametos AB e ab.


Cando se produce a recombinación meiótica entre os cromosomas homólogos pode ocorrer que por casualidade a recombinación se produza xusto entre eses dous xenes, o cal ocorrerá nunha porcentaxe dos casos, e dese modo os alelos que estaban nun cromosoma pasen ao seu homólogo. Así poden orixinarse tamén no exemplo anterior gametos Aa e aB (chamados tipos recombinantes), que serán pouco frecuentes e que de todos modos se apartarán totalmente das proporcións mendelianas. Pero seguirán sendo máis abundantes os gametos AB e ab no noso exemplo (tipos paternos), xa que non sempre se producirá recombinación xusto entre eses xenes. Canto máis afastados están os dous xenes no cromosoma máis probable é que se produza recombinación entre eles e aparezan os tipos recombinantes, polo que medir a frecuencia dos recombinantes é unha maneira de saber a distancia entre os xenes e a súa posición relativa no cromosoma, o que se utiliza para facer mapas de ligamento dos cromosomas.



Herdanza extranuclear |


A herdanza extranuclear, tamén chamada herdanza citoplasmática, é unha forma de herdanza non mendeliana descuberta por Carl Correns en 1908.[3] Mentres estaba a traballar coa planta Mirabilis jalapa Correns decatouse de que a cor das follas de certa variedade desa planta podía ser, segundo a póla, verde, branca ou con mestura de verde e branco, o que dependía só do xenotipo materno, e determinou que a cor se transmitía por medio dun carácter presente no citoplasma do óvulo. As flores desas pólas transmitían por vía materna a súa cor de follas. Posteriores investigacións feitas por Ruth Sager e outros identificaron ao ADN presente nos cloroplastos como o responsable deste inusual patrón de herdanza. Non hai que confundir este fenómeno coa herdanza da cor das flores desta planta, que ten lugar por herdanza intermedia (dominancia incompleta), determinada por xenes nucleares.


Ademais, os traballos realizados con cepas do mofo Neurospora crassa iniciados por Mary e Hershel Mitchell [4] finalmente serviron para descubrir o material xenético das mitocondrias, outro orgánulo con ADN non nuclear.


De acordo coa teoría endosimbiótica, as mitocondrias e os cloroplastos foron antigamente organismos de vida libre que foron captados por células eucarióticas e viviron en endosimbiose dentro delas.[5] Co tempo, convertéronse en orgánulos dependentes da célula hóspede. Aínda que co tempo se produciu unha transferencia de xenes desde estes orgánulos ao núcleo, aínda conservan o material xenético (ver xenoma mitocondrial) en forma de ADN circular de dobre cadea, que contén unh certa cantidade de xenes.


A transmisión do ADN destes orgánulos é responsable do fenómeno da herdanza extranuclear. Os cloroplastos e as mitocondrias están presentes basicamente só no citoplasma dos gametos maternos. Os gametos paternos, como é o caso dos espermatozoides, non teñen mitocondrias citoplasmáticas. Así, o fenotipo dos caracteres ligados aos xenes que se encontran en cloroplastos e mitocondrias está determinado exclusivamente polo proxenitor materno.


Nos humanos, as enfermidades mitocondriais son un tipo especial de doenzas, moitas das cales afectan aos músculos e ao ollo.



Impronta xenética |



Artigo principal: Impronta xenética.

A impronta xenética é outro exemplo de herdanza non mendeliana. Nela ambos os proxenitores pasan á descendencia os xenes dun determinado carácter. Porén, estes xenes están marcados epixeneticamente antes da súa transmisión, o que altera o seu nivel de expresión. Estas improntas orixínanse antes da formación dos gametos, pero son borradas durante a formación das novas células xerminais, polo que en cada xeración se forma un novo patrón de impronta.


Os xenes son impresos de forma diferente dependendo da orixe materna ou paterna do cromosoma que os leva. Nos ratos, o xene do factor de crecemento similar á insulina 2 sofre impronta. A proteína codiicada por este xene axuda a regular o tamaño corporal. Os ratos que posúen dúas copias funcionais deste xene son máis grandes ca os que teñen dúas copias mutantes. O tamaño dos ratos que son heterocigotos neste locus depende do proxenitor do cal procede o alelo de tipo salvaxe. Se o alelo funcional se orixinou na nai, a descendencia será anana, entanto que un alelo procedente do pai orixinará ratos de tamaño normal. Isto débese a que o xene materno Igf2 está impreso. A impronta causa a inactivación do xene Igf2 do cromosoma recibido da nai.[6]


As impresións de xenes orixínanse por metilación diferencial de alelos maternos e paternos, o que dá lugar a unha diferente expresión entre os alelos procedentes de cada proxenitor. Os loci con metilación significativa están asociados con baixos niveis de expresión xénica. Nos sitios non metilados a expresión xénica é maior.[7] Neste modo de herdanza, o fenotipo está determinado non só polo alelo específico transmitido á descendencia, senón tamén polo sexo do pai que o transmitiu.



Conversión xénica |


A conversión xénica pode ser unha das maiores formas de herdanza non mendeliana. A conversión xénica é o resultado dun proceso reparativo que se pode dar durante a recombinación xenética do ADN, na cal un cacho da secuencia de información do ADN se transfire dun cromosoma, o cal permanece inalterado, a outro, cuxa secuencia queda alterada (na recombinación normal as dúas quedarían alteradas ao intercambiaren segmentos). É resultado do mecanismo de reparación de apareamentos incorrectos no ADN (mismatch repair), que pode converter un alelo noutro. Este fenómeno pode detectarse polas frecuencias non mendelianas observadas na descendencia, e é común, por exemplo, en cruzamentos ente fungos.[8] O fenómeno pode orixinar enfermidades xenéticas en humanos, como a hiperplasia adrenal conxénita.[9]



Trastornos por repetición de trinucleótidos |


Os trastornos de repetición de trinucleótidos tampouco seguen os patróns mendelianos. Estes trastornos están causados pola expansión de repeticións en tándem microsatélites, que consisten en tramos de tres nucleótidos. Nos individuos normais, o número de unidades repetidas é relativamente baixo. Con cada sucesiva xeración, hai unha posibilidade de que o número de repeticións se amplíe. A medida que isto ocorre, a proxenie pode progresar ao status afectado. Os individuos cun número de repeticións grande (denominadas premutacións) teñen unha probabilidade elevada de ter fillos afectados. Os que progresan ata o status afectado mostran síntomas de enfermidade. Entre os trastornos por repetición de trinucleótidos máis salientables están a síndrome X fráxil e a enfermidade de Huntington.[10][11]



Notas |




  1. ↑ "Chapter 3. Gene Product Interaction and Nonmendelian". Consultado o 17 agosto 2012. 


  2. ↑ Van Heyningen V, Yeyati PL (2004). "Mechanisms of non-Mendelian inheritance in genetic disease". Hum. Mol. Genet. 13 Spec No 2: R225–33. PMID 15358729. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddh254. 


  3. ↑ Klug, William S.; Michael R. Cummings, Charlotte A. Spencer (2006). Concepts of Genetics. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education Inc. p. 215. 


  4. ↑ Mitchell MB, Mitchell HK (1952). "A case of "maternal" inheritance in Neurospora crassa". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 38 (5): 442–9. PMC 1063583. PMID 16589122. doi:10.1073/pnas.38.5.442. 


  5. ↑ Embley, T. Martin; William Martin (2006). "Eukaryotic evolution, changes and challenges". Nature 440 (7084): 623–630. PMID 16572163. doi:10.1038/nature04546. 


  6. ↑ Bell, A.C.; G. Felsenfeld (2000). "Methylation of a CTCF-dependent boundar control imprinted expression of the Igf2 gene". Nature 405 (6785): 482–485. PMID 10839546. doi:10.1038/35013100. 


  7. ↑ Lewin, Benjamin (2004). Genes VIII. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education Inc. pp. 680–684. 


  8. ↑ Stacey, K. A. 1994. Recombination. In: Kendrew John, Lawrence Eleanor (eds.). The Encyclopedia of Molecular Biology. Oxford: Blackwell Science, 945–950.


  9. ↑ Chen J, Cooper DN, Chuzhanova N, Férec C, Patrinos GP. (2007). "Gene conversion: mechanisms, evolution and human disease". Nature Reviews Genetics 8: 762–775. PMC 2779867. PMID 17846636. doi:10.1038/nrg2193. 


  10. ↑ Sherman, S. (2002). "Epidemiology". In Hagerman, R. J.; Hagerman, P. J.. Fragile X Syndrome, Diagnosis Treatment and Research (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6843-2.


  11. ↑ Santoro, MR; Bray SM, Warren ST. (2012). "Molecular Mechanisms of Fragile X Syndrome: A Twenty-Year Perspective". Annu. Rev. Pathol. Mech. Dis. 7: 219–45. doi:10.1146/annurev-pathol-011811-132457. PMID 22017584. http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-pathol-011811-132457.



Véxase tamén |



Outros artigos |


  • Hipótese CoRR

  • Epixenética

  • Conflito intraxenómico

  • Código de histonas




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